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Gifts the Wisemen Brought to the Baby Jesus

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Group of distinguished foreigners who visited Jesus subsequently his birth

The biblical Magi [a] ( or ;[1] singular: magus), too referred to every bit the (3) Wise Men or (Three) Kings, as well the Three Magi were distinguished foreigners in the Gospel of Matthew and Christian tradition. They are said to accept visited Jesus afterward his birth, bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh. They are regular figures in traditional accounts of the nativity celebrations of Christmas and are an important role of Christian tradition.

The Gospel of Matthew is the only one of the four canonical gospels to mention the Magi. Matthew reports that they came "from the east" to worship the "king of the Jews".[2] The gospel never mentions the number of Magi. Yet, well-nigh western Christian denominations have traditionally assumed them to take been three in number, based on the argument that they brought three gifts.[3] In Eastern Christianity, peculiarly the Syriac churches, the Magi frequently number twelve.[4] Their identification as kings in later Christian writings is probably linked to Isaiah sixty:1–6, which refers to "kings [coming] to the brightness of your dawn" bearing "gilded and frankincense".[5] Further identification of the magi with kings may be due to Psalm 72:11, "May all kings fall down before him".[half-dozen] [7]

Biblical account [edit]

Traditional nativity scenes depict iii "Wise Men" visiting the infant Jesus on the dark of his nascency, in a manger accompanied by the shepherds and angels, merely this should be understood as an artistic convention allowing the two separate scenes of the Admiration of the Shepherds on the birth night and the later Admiration of the Magi to exist combined for convenience.[8] The single biblical account in Matthew simply presents an event at an unspecified point afterward Christ'south birth in which an unnumbered political party of unnamed "wise men" ( μάγοι , mágoi ) visits him in a house ( οἰκίαν , oikian ),[9] non a stable, with but "his mother" mentioned as present. The New Revised Standard Version of Matthew 2:ane–12 describes the visit of the Magi in this way:

In the fourth dimension of King Herod, subsequently Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, "Where is the kid who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising, and have come to pay him homage." When King Herod heard this, he was frightened and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born. They told him, "In Bethlehem of Judea; for so it has been written by the prophet: 'And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least amid the rulers of Judah; for from you shall come up a ruler who is to shepherd my people Israel.'" Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. So he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, "Get and search diligently for the child; and when y'all have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage." When they had heard the rex, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its ascension, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy. On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own state past some other path.

The text specifies no interval between the nativity and the visit, and artistic depictions and the closeness of the traditional dates of December 25 and Jan 6 encourage the popular assumption that the visit took place the aforementioned winter as the birth, just later traditions varied, with the visit taken equally occurring upward to two winters later on. This maximum interval explained Herod's command at Matthew 2:xvi–xviii that the Massacre of the Innocents included boys upwardly to 2 years old. More recent commentators, not tied to the traditional feast days, may suggest a variety of intervals.[x]

The wise men are mentioned twice shortly thereafter in verse 16, in reference to their avoidance of Herod afterwards seeing Jesus, and what Herod had learned from their earlier coming together. The star which they followed has traditionally go known as the Star of Bethlehem.

Description [edit]

The Magi are popularly referred to every bit wise men and kings. The word magi is the plural of Latin magus, borrowed from Greek μάγος ( magos ),[eleven] every bit used in the original Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew (in the plural: μάγοι , magoi ). Greek magos itself is derived from Old Persian maguŝ from the Avestan magâunô, i.due east., the religious degree into which Zoroaster was born (see Yasna 33.7: "ýâ sruyê parê magâunô" = "so I tin can be heard beyond Magi"). The term refers to the Persian priestly degree of Zoroastrianism.[12] Equally part of their organized religion, these priests paid particular attending to the stars and gained an international reputation for astrology, which was at that fourth dimension highly regarded every bit a science. Their religious practices and use of astrology acquired derivatives of the term Magi to be applied to the occult in general and led to the English term magic. The King James Version translates the term every bit wise men; the same translation is applied to the wise men led by Daniel of earlier Hebrew Scriptures (Daniel two:48). The same discussion is given as wizard and sorcery when describing "Elymas the wizard" in Acts thirteen:6–11, and Simon Magus, considered a heretic by the early on Church, in Acts 8:nine–13. Several translations refer to the men outright as astrologers at Matthew Chapter 2, including New English Bible (1961); Phillips New Testament in Modernistic English (J.B.Phillips, 1972); Twentieth Century New Testament (1904 revised edition); Amplified Bible (1958-New Testament); An American Translation (1935, Goodspeed); and The Living Bible (K. Taylor, 1962-New Testament).

Although the Magi are commonly referred to as "kings", there is naught in the account from the Gospel of Matthew that implies that they were rulers of whatsoever kind. The identification of the Magi equally kings is linked to Quondam Testament prophecies that describe the Messiah beingness worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 68:29, and Psalm 72:10, which reads, "Yea, all kings shall fall downward before him: all nations serve him."[13] [fourteen] [15] Early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings. By AD 500 all commentators adopted the prevalent tradition that the three were kings.[16] Subsequently Christian interpretation stressed the adoration of the Magi and shepherds as the first recognition by the people of the world of Christ as the Redeemer, only the reformer John Calvin was vehemently opposed to referring to the Magi as kings. He wrote: "But the most ridiculous contrivance of the Papists on this subject field is, that those men were kings... Across all doubt, they take been stupefied past a righteous judgment of God, that all might laugh at [their] gross ignorance."[17] [eighteen]

Names [edit]

The New Testament does not give the names of the Magi. All the same, traditions and legends identify a variety of different names for them.[xix] In the Western Christian church, they have all been regarded as saints and are commonly known as:

  • Melchior (;[20] too Melichior),[21] a Persian scholar;
  • Caspar ( or ;[22] too Gaspar, Jaspar, Jaspas, Gathaspa,[21] [23] and other variations);
  • Balthazar ( or ;[24] also Balthasar, Balthassar, and Bithisarea),[21] a Babylonian scholar.

The online version of Encyclopædia Britannica states: "According to Western church tradition, Balthasar is oft represented as a king of Arabia or sometimes Ethiopia, Melchior as a male monarch of Persia, and Gaspar as a king of India."[25] These names apparently derive from a Greek manuscript probably equanimous in Alexandria around 500, and which has been translated into Latin with the title Excerpta Latina Barbari.[21] Another Greek certificate from the 8th century, of presumed Irish gaelic origin and translated into Latin with the championship Collectanea et Flores, continues the tradition of three kings and their names and gives additional details.[26] [27]

One candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears in the Acts of Thomas as Gondophares (21 – c. AD 47), i.east., Gudapharasa (from which "Caspar" might derive as corruption of "Gaspar"). This Gondophares declared independence from the Arsacids to become the first Indo-Parthian king, and he was allegedly visited by Thomas the Campaigner. According to Ernst Herzfeld, his name is perpetuated in the name of the Afghan city Kandahar, which he is said to have founded nether the proper name Gundopharron.[28]

In contrast, many Syrian Christians proper noun the Magi Larvandad, Gushnasaph, and Hormisdas.[29]

In the Eastern churches, Ethiopian Christianity, for example, has Hor, Karsudan, and Basanater, while the Armenian Catholics have Kagpha, Badadakharida and Badadilma.[thirty] [31] Many Chinese Christians believe that one of the magi came from China.[32]

Country of origin and journey [edit]

The phrase "from the east" ( ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν , apo anatolon ), more than literally "from the ascension [of the sun]", is the only data Matthew provides about the region from which they came. The Parthian Empire, centered in Persia, stretched from eastern Syria to the fringes of India. Though the empire was tolerant of other religions, its dominant organized religion was Zoroastrianism, with its priestly magos course.[33]

Although Matthew's account does non explicitly cite the motivation for their journey (other than seeing the star in the east, which they took to be the star of the King of the Jews), the Syriac Infancy Gospel provides some clarity by stating explicitly in the 3rd chapter that they were pursuing a prophecy from their prophet, Zoradascht (Zoroaster).[34]

There is an Armenian tradition identifying the "Magi of Bethlehem" as Balthasar of Arabia, Melchior of Persia, and Caspar of India.[35] Historian John of Hildesheim relates a tradition in the ancient silk road city of Taxila (in nowadays-day Punjab, Islamic republic of pakistan) that one of the Magi passed through the urban center on the way to Bethlehem.[36]

Sebastian Brock, a historian of Christianity, has said: "It was no doubt amidst converts from Zoroastrianism that... sure legends were developed around the Magi of the Gospels".[37] [38] And Anders Hultgård concluded that the Gospel story of the Magi was influenced by an Iranian legend apropos magi and a star, which was continued with Persian beliefs in the ascent of a star predicting the birth of a ruler and with myths describing the manifestation of a divine figure in fire and lite.[39]

A model for the homage of the Magi might have been provided, it has been suggested, by the journey to Rome of King Tiridates I of Armenia, with his magi, to pay homage to the Emperor Nero, which took identify in AD 66, a few years earlier the date assigned to the composition of the Gospel of Matthew.[40] [41]

There was a tradition that the Fundamental Asian Naimans and their Christian relatives, the Keraites, were descended from the biblical Magi.[42] This heritage passed to the Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan when Sorghaghtani, niece of the Keraite ruler Toghrul, married Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis, and became the mother of Möngke Khan and his younger brother and successor, Kublai Khan. Toghrul became identified with the legendary Central Asian Christian king Prester John, whose Mongol descendants were sought as allies against the Muslims by contemporary European monarchs and popes.[43] Sempad the Constable, elderberry blood brother of King Hetoum I of Cilician Armenia, visited the Mongol court in Karakorum in 1247–1250 and in 1254. He wrote a letter to Henry I King of Cyprus and Queen Stephanie (Sempad'south sister) from Samarkand in 1243, in which he said: "Tanchat [Tangut, or Western Xia], which is the land from whence came the Three Kings to Bethlehem to worship the Lord Jesus which was built-in. And know that the power of Christ has been, and is, so dandy, that the people of that land are Christians; and the whole land of Chata [Khitai, or Kara-Khitai] believes those Three Kings. I take myself been in their churches and have seen pictures of Jesus Christ and the 3 Kings, 1 offering gilded, the second frankincense, and the third myrrh. And information technology is through those Three Kings that they believe in Christ, and that the Chan and his people have at present get Christians.[44] The legendary Christian ruler of Central Asia Prester John was reportedly a descendant of 1 of the Magi.[45]

Gestures of respect [edit]

The Magi are described as "falling downwards", "kneeling" or "bowing" in the worship of Jesus.[46] This gesture, together with Luke's birth narrative, had an important consequence on Christian religious practices.[ citation needed ] They were indicative of great respect, and typically used when venerating a king. While prostration is now rarely practised in the Due west it is still relatively common in the Eastern Churches, peculiarly during Lent. Kneeling has remained an of import chemical element of Christian worship to this twenty-four hours.

Traditional identities and symbolism [edit]

Apart from their names, the iii Magi adult distinct characteristics in Christian tradition, so that betwixt them they represented the three ages of (adult) man, iii geographical and cultural areas, and sometimes other things. In one tradition, reflected in art past the 14th century (for example in the Loonshit Chapel past Giotto in 1305) Caspar is old, normally with a white beard, and gives the gold; he is "King of Tarsus, land of merchants" on the Mediterranean coast of mod Turkey, and is first in line to kneel to Christ. Melchior is heart-aged, giving frankincense from Arabia, and Balthazar is a fellow, very often and increasingly blackness-skinned, with myrrh from Saba (modernistic southern Yemen). Their ages were often given as lx, 40 and 20 respectively, and their geographical origins were rather variable, with Balthazar increasingly coming from Aksum or other parts of Africa, and being represented accordingly.[47] Balthazar's blackness has been the subject of considerable recent scholarly attention; in art, it is found by and large in northern Europe, beginning from the twelfth century, and becoming very mutual in the n by the 15th.[48] The subject of which male monarch is which and who brought which souvenir is not without some variation depending on the tradition. The souvenir of gold is sometimes associated with Melchior equally well and in some traditions, Melchior is the old man of the iii Magi.[ citation needed ]

Gifts [edit]

"Gifts of the Magi" redirects hither. For the short story, see The Gift of the Magi.

Three gifts are explicitly identified in Matthew: golden, frankincense and myrrh. In Koine Greek these are chrysós (χρυσός), líbanos (λίβανος) and smýrna (σμύρνα). Many different theories of the meaning and symbolism of the gifts have been brought forward. While gold is adequately apparently explained, frankincense, and particularly myrrh, are more obscure. Meet the previous section for who gave which.

The theories generally break downward into two groups:

  1. All 3 gifts are ordinary offerings and gifts given to a king. Myrrh being commonly used every bit an anointing oil, frankincense as a perfume, and gold as a valuable.
  2. The three gifts had a spiritual meaning: gilded equally a symbol of kingship on globe, frankincense (an incense) as a symbol of deity, and myrrh (an embalming oil) every bit a symbol of death.
    • This dates back to Origen in Contra Celsum: "gold, as to a male monarch; myrrh, as to one who was mortal; and incense, as to a God."[49]
    • These interpretations are alluded to in the verses of the popular carol "We Three Kings" in which the magi describe their gifts. The last verse includes a summary of the estimation: "Glorious now behold Him arise/King and God and sacrifice."
    • Sometimes this is described more than generally as golden symbolizing virtue, frankincense symbolizing prayer, and myrrh symbolizing suffering.

Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment and as a penitential incense in funerals and cremations until the 15th century. The "holy oil" traditionally used by the Eastern Orthodox Church for performing the sacraments of chrismation and unction is traditionally scented with myrrh, and receiving either of these sacraments is ordinarily referred to as "receiving the myrrh". The picture of the Magi on the 7th-century Franks Catafalque shows the third company – he who brings myrrh – with a valknut over his back, a pagan symbol referring to Decease.[l]

It has been suggested by scholars that the "gifts" were medicinal rather than precious material for tribute.[51] [52] [53]

The Syrian King Seleucus I Nicator is recorded to have offered gold, frankincense and myrrh (amidst other items) to Apollo in his temple at Didyma near Miletus in 288/7 BC,[54] and this may have been the precedent for the mention of these three gifts in Gospel of Matthew (2:11). It was these three gifts, it is idea, which were the principal crusade for the number of the Magi becoming stock-still eventually at three.[55]

This episode tin be linked to Isaiah 60 and to Psalm 72, which study gifts being given by kings, and this has played a fundamental role in the perception of the Magi as kings, rather than equally astronomer-priests. In a hymn of the belatedly quaternary-century Hispanic poet Prudentius, the iii gifts accept already gained their medieval interpretation as prophetic emblems of Jesus' identity, familiar in the carol "We Three Kings" past John Henry Hopkins, Jr., 1857.

John Chrysostom suggested that the gifts were fit to be given non just to a king but to God, and contrasted them with the Jews' traditional offerings of sheep and calves, and accordingly Chrysostom asserts that the Magi worshiped Jesus as God.

What subsequently happened to these gifts is never mentioned in the scripture, only several traditions accept developed.[56] Ane story has the gold beingness stolen by the two thieves who were later crucified alongside Jesus. Another tale has it being entrusted to and then misappropriated by Judas. Ane tradition suggests that Joseph and Mary used the gilt to finance their travels when they fled Bethlehem after an angel had warned, in a dream, about King Herod's plan to kill Jesus. And some other story proposes the theory that the myrrh given to them at Jesus' nascency was used to anoint Jesus' body after his crucifixion.

There was a 15th-century aureate example purportedly containing the Souvenir of the Magi housed in the Monastery of St. Paul of Mount Athos. It was donated to the monastery in the 15th century by Mara Branković, daughter of the King of Serbia Đurađ Branković, married woman to the Ottoman Sultan Murat II and godmother to Mehmet II the Conquistador (of Constantinople). Later on the Athens earthquake of September vii, 1999, they were temporarily displayed in Athens to strengthen faith and enhance coin for earthquake victims. The relics were displayed in Ukraine and Belarus in Christmas of 2014, and thus left Greece for the first time since the 15th century.[57]

Martyrdom traditions [edit]

The Three Wise Kings, Catalan Atlas, 1375, fol. V: "This province is called Tarshish, from which came the 3 Wise Kings, and they came to Bethlehem in Judaea with their gifts and worshipped Jesus Christ, and they are entombed in the city of Cologne ii days journeying from Bruges."

Christian Scriptures record nil about the biblical Magi after reporting their going back to their own country (Matthew two:12 uses the feminine singular noun, χώραν, noting 1 country, territory or region of origin). Two separate traditions have surfaced claiming that they were so moved by their encounter with Jesus that they either became Christians on their own or were quick to convert fully upon afterward encountering an Apostle of Jesus. The traditions claim that they were so strong in their behavior that they willingly embraced martyrdom.

Chronicon of Dexter [edit]

I tradition gained popularity in Spain during the 17th century; it was found in a work called the Chronicon of Dexter. The piece of work was ascribed to Flavius Lucius Dexter the bishop of Barcelona, nether Theodosius the Great. The tradition appears in the course of a elementary martyrology reading, "In Arabia Felix, in the city of Sessania of the Adrumeti, the martyrdom of the holy kings, the three Magi, Gaspar, Balthassar, and Melchior who adored Christ."[58] Start actualization in 1610, the Chronicon of Dexter was immensely pop along with the traditions it contained throughout the 17th century. Later, this was all brought into question when historians and the Cosmic hierarchy in Rome alleged the work a pious forgery.[59]

Relics at Cologne [edit]

A competing tradition asserts that the biblical Magi "were martyred for the faith, and that their bodies were beginning venerated at Constantinople; thence they were transferred to Milan in 344. It is sure that when Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Barbarossa) imposed his say-so on Milan, the relics there were transferred to Cologne Cathedral, housed in the Shrine of the Iii Kings, and are venerated there today."[58] The Milanese treated the fragments of masonry from their at present-empty tomb as secondary relics and these were widely distributed around the region, including southern France, accounting for the frequency with which the Magi appear on chasse reliquaries in Limoges enamel.[60]

Tombs [edit]

In that location are several traditions on where the remains of the Magi are located, although none of the traditions is considered as an established fact or even as particularly likely by secular history. Marco Polo claimed that he was shown the three tombs of the Magi at Saveh due south of Tehran in the 1270s:

In Persia is the city of Saba, from which the Three Magi set up out when they went to worship Jesus Christ; and in this city they are cached, in three very large and beautiful monuments, side past side. And in a higher place them there is a square edifice, carefully kept. The bodies are still entire, with the hair and bristles remaining.

Paul William Roberts provides some modern-day corroboration of this possibility in his book Journey of the Magi.[61]

A Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral, co-ordinate to tradition, contains the bones of the 3 Wise Men. Reputedly they were first discovered by Saint Helena on her famous pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy Lands. She took the remains to the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople; they were later moved to Milan (some sources say by the city's bishop, Eustorgius I[62]), earlier existence sent to their current resting place by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I in 1164. The Milanese celebrate their office in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every 6 January.

A version of the detailed elaboration familiar to us is laid out by the 14th-century cleric John of Hildesheim'due south Historia Trium Regum ("History of the Three Kings"). In bookkeeping for the presence in Cologne of their mummified relics, he begins with the journeying of Helena, the mother of Constantine I to Jerusalem, where she recovered the True Cantankerous and other relics:

Queen Helen… began to think profoundly of the bodies of these three kings, and she arrayed herself, and accompanied by many attendants, went into the Land of Ind… after she had institute the bodies of Melchior, Balthazar, and Gaspar, Queen Helen put them into one chest and ornamented it with great riches, and she brought them into Constantinople... and laid them in a church that is called Saint Sophia.

Religious significance [edit]

The visit of the Magi is commemorated in about Western Christian churches by the observance of Epiphany, 6 Jan, which also serves as the feast of the three as saints. The Eastern Orthodox gloat the visit of the Magi on 25 Dec.

The Quran omits Matthew'due south episode of the Magi. However, the Farsi Muslim encyclopaedist al-Tabari, writing in the 9th century, gives the familiar symbolism of the gifts of the Magi. Al-Tabari gave his source for the information to be the later seventh century Perso-Yemenite writer Wahb ibn Munabbih.[63]

Traditions [edit]

Holidays celebrating the arrival of the Magi traditionally recognise a stardom betwixt the appointment of their inflow and the date of Jesus' birth. The account given in the Gospel of Matthew does not state that they were present on the night of the nascence; in the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary remain in Bethlehem until information technology is time for Jesus' dedication, in Jerusalem, and and then return to their home in Nazareth.

Hispanic customs [edit]

The Three Wise Men receiving children at a shopping centre in Espana. Letters with gift requests are left in the letterbox on the left-hand side.

Western Christianity celebrates the Magi on the day of Epiphany, Jan 6, the 24-hour interval immediately following the twelve days of Christmas, especially in the Castilian-speaking parts of the world. In these areas, the Three Kings ( los Reyes Magos de Oriente , Los Tres Reyes Magos or merely Los Reyes Magos ) receive letters from children and and so bring them gifts on the nighttime earlier Epiphany. In Spain, each i of the Magi is supposed to correspond 1 different continent, Europe (Melchior), Asia (Caspar) and Africa (Balthasar). According to the tradition, the Magi come from the Orient on their camels to visit the houses of all the children, much like Sinterklaas and Santa Claus with his reindeer elsewhere, they visit everyone in i night. In some areas, children prepare a potable for each of the Magi. It is too traditional to set food and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of the yr when they swallow.

In Espana, Argentina, Mexico, Paraguay and Uruguay, there is a long tradition of having the children receive presents past the 3 "Reyes Magos" on the night of Jan five (Epiphany Eve) or morning of January half-dozen. Near every Spanish metropolis or town organises cabalgatas in the evening, in which the kings and their servants parade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance. The cavalcade of the three kings in Alcoy claims to be the oldest in the world, having started in 1886. The Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings is also presented on Epiphany Eve. There is besides a "Roscón" (Spain) or "Rosca de Reyes" (United mexican states) as explained below.

In the Philippines, beliefs concerning the Three Kings (Filipino: Tatlóng Haring Mago, lit. "3 Magi Kings"; shortened to Tatlóng Harì or Spanish Tres Reyes) follows Hispanic influence, with the Banquet of the Epiphany considered by many Filipinos as the traditional end of their Christmas flavor. The tradition of the Three Kings' cabalgada is today washed only in some areas, such equally the old metropolis of Intramuros in Manila, and the isle of Marinduque. Some other dying custom is children leaving shoes out on Epiphany Eve, so that they may receive sweets and money from the Three Kings. With the arrival of American culture in the early 20th century, the Three Kings as gift-givers take been largely replaced in urban areas by Santa Claus, and they just survive in the greeting "Happy Iii Kings!" and the surname Tatlóngharì. The Three Kings are especially revered in Gapan, Nueva Ecija, where they are enshrined as patron saints in the National Shrine of Virgen La Divina Pastora.[ citation needed ]

In virtually of this countries, children cut grass or greenery on January 5 and put information technology in a box under their bed or too the christmas tree for the Kings' camels. Children receive gifts on January six, which is called Día de Reyes, and is traditionally the mean solar day in which the Magi arrived bearing gifts for the Christ child. Christmas starts in Dec and ends in January afterward Epiphany, although in Puerto Rico at that place are 8 more than days of celebration (las octavitas).

In 2009 a campaign started in Spain over the fact that Balthazar is ordinarily played by a white person in blackface.[64] [ non-master source needed ] [65] [ non-primary source needed ]

Primal Europe [edit]

Sternsinger – Christmas carolers in Sanok, Poland.

A tradition in Poland, Czech republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and German-speaking Cosmic areas is the writing of the three kings' initials (C+M+B, C K B, Thousand+One thousand+B, 1000+Grand+B, in those areas where Caspar is spelled Kaspar or Gašper) in a higher place the main door of Cosmic homes in chalk. This is a new year's day's blessing for the occupants and the initials likewise are believed to also stand for "Christus mansionem benedicat" ("May/Permit Christ Bless This House").[66] Depending on the metropolis or town, this will be happen sometime between Christmas and the Epiphany, with almost municipalities celebrating closer to the Epiphany. Also in Catholic parts of the High german-speaking world, these markings are fabricated past the Sternsinger (literally, "star singers") – a group of children dressed up as the magi.[67] The Sternsinger carry a star representing the one followed by the biblical magi and sing Christmas carols as they become door to door, such as "Stern über Bethlehem". An developed chaperones the grouping only stays in the background of the performance. Subsequently singing, the children write the three kings' initials on the door frame in substitution for charitable donations. Each year, German and Austrian dioceses pick one charity towards which all Sternsinger donations nationwide volition be contributed.[ citation needed ] Traditionally, one child in the Sternsinger group is said to represent Baltasar from Africa and and so, that child typically wears blackface makeup.[68] [69] [70] Many Germans do not consider this to be racist because it is not intended to be a negative portrayal of a black person, simply rather, a "realistic" or "traditional" portrayal of one.[71] The dialogue surrounding the politics of traditions involving blackface is non as developed every bit in Spain or the Netherlands.[ citation needed ] In the past, photographs of German politicians together with children in blackface have caused a stir in English-language press.[72] [73] Moreover, Afro-Germans have written that this use of blackface is a missed opportunity to exist truly inclusive of Afro-Germans in German language-speaking communities and contribute to the equation of "blackness" with "foreignness" and "otherness" in German civilization.[74]

In 2010 the day of Epiphany, Jan vi, was fabricated a holiday in Poland and thus a pre-war tradition was revived.[75] Since 2011, celebrations with biblical costuming take taken identify throughout the country. For case, in Warsaw there are processions from Plac Zamkowy down Krakowskie Przedmieście to Plac Piłsudskiego.[76]

Roscón de Reyes [edit]

In Spain and Portugal, a ring-shaped block (in Portuguese: bolo-rei [77]) contains both a small figurine of i of the Magi (or another surprise depending on the region) and a dry broad edible bean. The one who gets the figurine is "crowned" (with a crown made of cardboard or paper), but whoever gets the bean has to pay the value of the cake to the person who originally bought it. In Mexico they besides accept the aforementioned ring-shaped cake Rosca de Reyes (Kings Bagel or Thread) with figurines inside it. Whoever gets a figurine is supposed to organize and be the host of the family commemoration for the Candelaria feast on February 2.

In France and Belgium, a cake containing a small figure of the baby Jesus, known every bit the "wide edible bean", is shared within the family. Whoever gets the bean is crowned male monarch for the remainder of the holiday and wears a cardboard crown purchased with the block. A like do is mutual in many areas of Switzerland, simply the figurine is a miniature king. The practice is known as tirer les Rois (Drawing the Kings). A queen is sometimes also chosen.

In New Orleans, Louisiana, parts of southern Texas, and surrounding regions, a similar ring-shaped cake known as a "King Block" traditionally becomes available in bakeries from Epiphany to Mardi Gras. The babe Jesus figurine is inserted into the cake from underneath, and the person who gets the slice with the figurine is expected to purchase or broil the side by side King Block. There is wide variation among the types of pastry that may be chosen a King Cake, merely nigh are a baked cinnamon-flavoured twisted dough with thin frosting and boosted carbohydrate on top in the traditional Mardi Gras colours of gold, light-green and imperial. To forbid adventitious injury or choking, the baby Jesus figurine is frequently non inserted into the cake at the bakery, but included in the packaging for optional utilise past the buyer to insert information technology themselves. Mardi Gras-style beads and doubloons may be included likewise.

In art [edit]

The Magi most frequently appear in European art in the Admiration of the Magi; less frequently in the Journey of the Magi has been a popular subject field in art, and topos, and other scenes such equally the Magi earlier Herod and the Dream of the Magi also announced in the Middle Ages. In Byzantine art they are depicted as Persians, wearing trousers and phrygian caps. Crowns appear from the 10th century. Despite beingness saints, they are very often shown without halos, perhaps to avert distracting attending from either their crowns or the halos of the Holy Family. Sometimes just the lead king, kneeling to Christ, has a halo the two others lack, probably indicating that the 2 behind had not however performed the act of worship that would ensure their status as saints. Medieval artists also allegorised the theme to stand for the three ages of man. Showtime in the 12th century, and very often past the 15th, the Kings too represent the 3 parts of the known (pre-Columbian) world in Western fine art, especially in Northern Europe. Balthasar is thus represented equally a young African or Moor, and Caspar may exist depicted with distinctly Oriental features.

An early Anglo-Saxon depiction survives on the Franks Casket (early 7th century, whalebone etching), the only Christian scene, which is combined with pagan and classical imagery. In its composition it follows the oriental style, which renders a ladylike scene, with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly approach from the (left) side. Fifty-fifty amidst non-Christians who had heard of the Christian story of the Magi, the motif was quite pop, since the Magi had endured a long journey and were generous. Instead of an angel, the flick places a swan-like bird, perchance interpretable as the hero's fylgja (a protecting spirit, and shapeshifter).

Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein depicted a more controversial tableau in his painting, Epiphany I: Adoration of the Magi (1996). Intended to represent the "many connections between the Tertiary Reich and the Christian churches in Austria and Deutschland",[78] Nazi officers in uniform stand around an Aryan Madonna. The Christ toddler who stands on Mary's lap resembles Adolf Hitler.[79]

More than by and large they announced in popular Nascency scenes and other Christmas decorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian presepio or Nativity crèche.

In music [edit]

Some Christmas carols refer to the biblical Magi or Three Kings, especially hymns meant to be sung by the star singers, such as "Stern über Bethlehem". Peter Cornelius composed a vocal cycle Weihnachtslieder, Op. eight, which incorporate song "Die Könige" (The Kings), which became popular in an English language choral system, "The Three Kings". Balthazar, Caspar, and Melchior are besides featured in Gian Carlo Menotti's 1951 opera Amahl and the Night Visitors.

See also [edit]

References [edit]

Notes

  1. ^ Koinē Greek: μάγοι, romanized: mágoi from Middle Persian moɣ(mard) from One-time Farsi magu- 'Zoroastrian clergyman'

Citations

  1. ^ Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, Tennessee: Holman Bible Publishers. 2003. p. 1066. ISBN0-8054-2836-four.
  2. ^ Matthew 2:1-ii
  3. ^ Geza Vermes, The Nascency: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, p. 22
  4. ^ Metzger, 24 [lxxx]
  5. ^ Isaiah 60:1-6
  6. ^ "Magi". Encyclopædia Britannica. Online Edition.
  7. ^ s.v. magi . Oxford English Dictionary (Tertiary ed.). April 1910.
  8. ^ Schiller, 114
  9. ^ "Matthew 2". Bible Gateway.
  10. ^ Schiller, I, 96; The New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512639-4 p. 109
  11. ^ Oxford English Lexicon, Third edition, April 2010, s.v. magus
  12. ^ Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism: The Early on Menses (Brill, 1989, 2d ed.), vol. 1, pp. 10–11 online; Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices (Routledge, 2001, second ed.), p. 48 online; Linda Murray, The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture (Oxford University Printing, 1996), p. 293; Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World (Wiley–Blackwell, 2007), p. 387 online.
  13. ^ Psalm 72:xi (King James Version)
  14. ^ "Magi". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  15. ^ s.v. magi. Oxford English language Dictionary (Tertiary ed.). April 1910.
  16. ^ Pulsate, Walter. "Magi." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 24 Dec. 2016.
  17. ^ Ashby, Chad. "Magi, Wise Men, or Kings? Information technology'due south Complicated." Christianity Today, December 16, 2016.
  18. ^ Calvin, John. Calvin's Commentaries, Vol. 31: Matthew, Mark and Luke, Part I, tr. by John Rex . Retrieved 2010-05-15 . Quote from Commentary on Matthew 2:i–six
  19. ^ Encounter Metzger, 23–29 for a lengthy account
  20. ^ "Melchior". Collins Lexicon. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  21. ^ a b c d Excerpta Latina Barbari, folio 51B: "At that time in the reign of Augustus, on 1st January the Magi brought him gifts and worshipped him. The names of the Magi were Bithisarea, Melichior and Gathaspa.".
  22. ^ "Caspar or Gaspar". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  23. ^ Hugo Kehrer (1908), Vol. I, p. 70 Online version Kehrer'due south commentary: "Die Form Jaspar stammt aus Frankreich. Sie findet sich im niederrheinisch-kölnischen Dialekt und im Englischen. Note: O. Baist page 455; J.P.Migne; Dictionnaire des apocryphes, Paris 1856, vol I, p. 1023. ... So in La Vie de St. Gilles; Li Roumans de Berte: Melcior, Jaspar, Baltazar; Rymbybel des Jakob von Märlant: Balthasar, Melchyor, Jaspas; ein altenglisches Gedicht des dreizehnten oder vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (13th century!!) Note: C.Horstmann, Altenglische Legenden, Paderborn 1875, p. 95; ... La Vie des trois Roys Jaspar Melchior et Balthasar, Paris 1498"-->]
  24. ^ "Balthazar". Collins Lexicon. n.d. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  25. ^ "Magi". Britannica.com . Retrieved 24 Nov 2021.
  26. ^ Hugo Kehrer (1908), Dice Heiligen Drei Könige in Literatur und Kunst (reprinted in 1976). Vol. I, p. 66. Online version. Quote from the Latin chronicle: primus fuisse dicitur Melchior, senex et canus, barba prolixa et capillis, tunica hyacinthina, sagoque mileno, et calceamentis hyacinthino et albo mixto opere, pro mitrario variae compositionis indutus: aurum obtulit regi Domino. ("the starting time [magus], named Melchior, was an old white-haired man, with a total beard and hair, [...]: the king gave gilt to our Lord.") Secundum, nomine Caspar, juvenis imberbis, rubicundus, mylenica tunica, sago rubeo, calceamentis hyacinthinis vestitus: thure quasi Deo oblatione digna, Deum honorabat. ("The 2nd, with proper noun Caspar, a beardless male child, [... gave incense].") Tertius, fuscus, integre barbatus, Balthasar nomine, habens tunicam rubeam, albo vario, calceamentis inimicis amicus: per myrrham filium hominis moriturum professus est. ("The third one, night-haired, with a total beard, named Balthasar, [... gave myrhh].") Omnia autem vestimenta eorum Syriaca sunt. ("The clothes of all [three] were Syrian-mode.")
  27. ^ Collectanea et Flores in Patrologia Latina. XCIV, page 541(D) Online version
  28. ^ Ernst Herzfeld, Archaeological History of Islamic republic of iran, London, Oxford University Printing for the British Academy, 1935, p. 63.
  29. ^ Witold Witakowski, "The Magi in Syriac Tradition", in George A. Kiraz (ed.), Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone: Studies in Honour of Sebastian P. Brock, Piscataway (NJ), Gorgias Press, 2008, pp. 809–844.
  30. ^ Acta Sanctorum, May, I, 1780.
  31. ^ Apropos The Magi And Their Names.
  32. ^ Hattaway, Paul; Brother Yun; Yongze, Peter Xu; and Wang, Enoch. Back to Jerusalem. (Accurate Publishing, 2003). retrieved May 2007
  33. ^ Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran. Basic Books. pp. 31–43.
  34. ^ Hone, William (1890 (4th edit); 1820 (1st edition)). "The Apocryphal Books of the New Attestation". Archive.org. Gebbie & Co., Publishers, Philadelphia. Encounter: Retrieved 26 January 2017.
  35. ^ Nersessian, Vrej (2001). The Bible in the Armenian Tradition. Getty. ISBN978-0-89236-640-8. [ folio needed ]
  36. ^ Historia Trium Regum (History of the Three Kings) by John of Hildesheim (1364–1375)[ specify ]
  37. ^ Brock, Sebastian (1982). "Christians in the Sasanian Empire: A Case of Divided Loyalties". In Mews, Stuart (ed.). Religion and National Identity. Studies in Church building History, 18. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 1–19. ISBN978-0-631-18060-9.
  38. ^ Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende orientali sui Magi evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca apostolica vaticana, 1952.[ page needed ]
  39. ^ Hultgård, Anders (1998). "The Magi and the Star—the Persian Background in Texts and Iconography". In Schalk, Peter; Stausberg, Michael (eds.). 'Being Religious and Living through the Eyes': Studies in Religious Iconography and Iconology: A Celebratory Publication in Award of Professor January Bergman. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Historia Religionum, 14. Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International. pp. 215–25. ISBN978-91-554-4199-nine.
  40. ^ A. Dietrich, "Die Weisen aus dem Morgenlande", Zeitschrift für dice Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, Bd. III, 1902, p. one fourteen; cited in J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Die Drei Weisen aus dem Morgenlande und die Anbetung der Zeit", Antaios, Vol. VII, 1965, pp. 234–252, 245; cited in Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastrianism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 453, n. 449.
  41. ^ Herzfeld, Ernst (1935). Archaeological History of Iran. Schweich Lectures of the British Academy. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 65–6. OCLC 651983281.
  42. ^ In regno Tarsae sunt tres provinciae, quarum dominatores se reges faciunt appellari. Homines illius patriae nominant Iogour. Semper idola coluerunt, et adhuc colunt omnes, praeter decem cognationes illorum regum, qui per demonstrationum stellae venerunt adorare nativitatem in Bethlehem Judae. Et adhuc multi magni et nobiles inveniunt inter Tartaros de cognatione illa, qui tenent firmiter fidem Christi. (In the kingdom of Tarsis at that place are three provinces, whose rulers have called themselves kings. the men of that land are chosen Uighours. They always worshipped idols, and they all still worship them except for the 10 families of those Kings who from the appearance of the Star came to adore the Nativity in Bethlehem of Judah. And there are still many of the great and noble of those families found among the Tartars who hold firmly to the faith of Christ): Wesley Roberton Long (ed.), La flor de las ystorias de Orient by Hethum prince of Khorghos, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1934, pp. 53, 111, 115; cited in Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende orientali sui Magi evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca apostolica vaticana, 1952, p. 161. Hayton, Haithoni Armeni ordinis Praemonstratenis de Tartaris liber, Simon Grynaeus Johannes Huttichius, Novus orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum, Basel, 1532, caput ii, De Regno Tarsae, p. 420 "The people of these countrees be named Iobgontans [Uighurs], and at all tymes they haue been idolaters, and then they contynue to this present 24-hour interval, relieve the nacion or kynred of those thre kynges which came to worshyp Our Lorde Ihesu Chryst at his natiuyte by demonstracyon of the sterre. And the linage of the same thre kynges exist yet vnto this day slap-up lordes virtually the lande of Tartary, which ferme and stedfastly beleue in the fayth of Christ": Hetoum, A Lytell Cronycle: Richard Pynson's Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des Histoires de la Terre d'Orient, edited by Glenn Burger, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1988, Of the realme of Tharsey, p. 8, lines 29–38.
  43. ^ Friedrich Zarncke, "Der Priester Johannes", Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Classe der Koeniglichen Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig, Band 7, Heft 8, 1879, Due south.826–1028; Band I, Heft viii, 1883, Southward. 1–186), re-published in one volume by M. Olms, Hildesheim, 1980.
  44. ^ Alphabetic character of Sempad the Constable to the King and Queen of Cyprus, 1243, in Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Oxford, Hakluyt society, 1866, Vol.I, pp. cxxvii, 262–iii."
  45. ^ Fertur enim iste de antiqua progenie illorum, quorum in Evangelio mentio fit, esse Magorum, eisdemque, quibus et isti, gentibus imperans, tanta gloria et habundancia frui, ut not nisi sceptro smaragdino uti dicatur (It is reported that he is the descendant of those Magi of sometime who are mentioned in the Gospel, and to rule over the aforementioned nations as they did, enjoying such glory and prosperity that he uses no sceptre but one of emerald). Otto von Freising, Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, 1146, in Friedrich Zarncke, Der Priester Johannes, Leipzig, Hirzel, 1879 (repr. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim and New York, 1980, p. 848; Adolf Hofmeister, Ottonis Episcopi Frisingensis Chronica; sive, Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, Hannover. 1912, p. 366.
  46. ^ "Matthew 2; – Passage Lookup – New International Version – Britain". BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2010-06-28 .
  47. ^ Penny, 401
  48. ^ Schiller, I, 113
  49. ^ Origen, Contra Celsum I.60.
  50. ^ "Franks Casket - F - console (Front) - Pictures: The Magi".
  51. ^ Page, Sophie,"Magic In Medieval Manuscripts". University of Toronto Press, 2004. 64 pages. ISBN 0-8020-3797-half-dozen, p. 18.
  52. ^ Gustav-Adolf Schoener and Shane Denson [Translator], "Astrology: Between Organized religion and the Empirical".
  53. ^ "Frankincense: festive pharmacognosy Archived 2007-06-xv at the Wayback Machine". Pharmaceutical periodical. Vol 271, 2003. pharmj.com.
  54. ^ Greek inscription RC five (OGIS 214) - English translation. This inscription was in the past erroneously dated to nearly 243 B.C.
  55. ^ August Friedrich von Pauly et al., Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. 16, 1, Stuttgart, 1933, col.1145; Leonardo Olschki, "The Wise Men of the E in Oriental Traditions", Semitic and Oriental Studies, University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Vol.11, 1951, pp. 375 395, p. 380, north. 46; cited in Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastrianism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 450, n. 438.
  56. ^ Lambert, John Chisholm, in James Hastings (ed.) A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. Page 100.
  57. ^ "Gifts of the Magi delivered to Minsk for worship". ITAR-TASS. 17 January 2014. Retrieved 2014-01-17 .
  58. ^ a b Andrew Edward Breen (February ane, 1908). A Harmonized Exposition of the Iv Gospels, Volume 1. Rochester, New York.
  59. ^ R. R. Madden, M.D. (1864). "On certain Literary Frauds and Forgeries in Spain And Italia". Proceedings of the Majestic Irish University, Vol viii. Dublin.
  60. ^ Gauthier M-Yard. and François G., Émaux méridionaux: Catalogue international de l'oeuvre de Limoges – Tome I: Epoque romane, p. 11, Paris 1987
  61. ^ Journey of the Magi, Paul William Roberts, (2006) Tauris Parke Paperbacks, pgs 27-38
  62. ^ "Sant' Eustorgio I di Milano". Santiebeati.information technology. 2001-09-09. Retrieved 2010-06-28 .
  63. ^ "We, three kings of Orient were". Saudiaramcoworld.com. Archived from the original on 2010-01-thirteen. Retrieved 2010-06-28 .
  64. ^ News nearly blackface Balthazars (in Castilian)
  65. ^ Vídeo demanding truthful black Baltazars (in Spanish)
  66. ^ "Christus Mansionem Benedicat « Catholic Sensibility". Catholicsensibility.wordpress.com. 2006-01-05. Retrieved 2012-01-12 .
  67. ^ "Duden | Sternsingen | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition" (in German language). Duden.de. 2012-10-30. Retrieved 2013-12-xvi .
  68. ^ Name bedeutet: Gott schütze sein Leben (babylon.-hebr.) (2007-03-25). "Balthasar – Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon". Heiligenlexikon.de. Retrieved 2013-12-16 .
  69. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Baltasar". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2013-12-xvi .
  70. ^ "Blackface! Around the Earth". Blackness-face.com. Retrieved 2013-12-sixteen .
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  72. ^ "German Chancellor Angela Merkel poses with children in blackface for Three King's Day celebration". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2013-12-16 .
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Bibliography

  • Giffords, Gloria Fraser, Sanctuaries of World, Stone, and Light: The Churches of Northern New Kingdom of spain, 1530–1821, 2007, University of Arizona Press, ISBN 0816525897, 9780816525898, google books
  • Metzger, Bruce, New Testament Studies: Philological, Versional, and Patristic, Volume 10, 1980, BRILL, ISBN 9004061630, 9789004061637.
  • Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume II, Venice 1540–1600, 2008, National Gallery Publications Ltd, ISBN 1857099133
  • Schiller, Gertud, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 0853312702

Further reading

  • Albright, W. F., and C. Due south. Mann. "Matthew." The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
  • Becker, Alfred: Franks Casket. Zu den Bildern und Inschriften des Runenkästchens von Auzon (Regensburg, 1973) pp. 125–142, Ikonographie der Magierbilder, Inschriften.
  • Benecke, P. 5. Grand. (1900). "Magi". In James Hastings (ed.). A Dictionary of the Bible. Vol. III. pp. 203–206.
  • Brown, Raymond E. The Nascency of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
  • Clarke, Howard W. (2003). The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloomington: Indiana Academy Press.
  • Chrysostom, John. "Homilies on Matthew: Homily 6". c. 4th century.
  • France, R. T. The Gospel Co-ordinate to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
  • Gundry, Robert H. Matthew: A Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
  • Hegedus, Tim (2003). "The Magi and the Star in the Gospel of Matthew and Early Christian Tradition". Laval Théologique et Philosophique. 59 (ane): 81–95. doi:10.7202/000790ar.
  • Colina, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Yard Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981
  • Lambert, John Chisholm, A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. Page 97–101.
  • Levine, Amy-Jill. "Matthew." Women's Bible Commentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Printing, 1998.
  • Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi. Rutgers Academy Printing, 1999. 187 pages. ISBN 0-8135-2701-5
  • Powell, Mark Allan. "The Magi as Wise Men: Re-examining a Basic Assumption." New Testament Studies. Vol. 46, 2000.
  • Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
  • Trexler, Richard C. Journey of the Magi: Meanings in History of a Christian Story. Princeton University Press, 1997.
  • Watson, Richard, A Biblical and Theological Dictionary, Page 608–611.

External links [edit]

  • Marking Rose, "The Three Kings & the Star": the Cologne reliquary and the BBC popular documentary
  • Alfred Becker, Franks Casket
  • Caroline Stone, "Nosotros Iii Kings of Orient Were"
  • Magi Catholic Encyclopedia
  • "Procession of the Three Kings in Valencia"

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Magi

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